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England
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (usually shortened to the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain[1]) is a country[2] and sovereign state that is situated in west Northern Europe. Its territory and population are primarily situated on the island of Great Britain and in Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland, as well as numerous smaller islands in the surrounding seas. The United Kingdom is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, and its ancillary bodies of water, including the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, and the Irish Sea. The mainland is linked to France by the Channel Tunnel and Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland.
Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, with executive power exercised on behalf of the monarch by the prime minister and other cabinet ministers who head departments. The cabinet, including the prime minister, and other ministers collectively make up Her Majesty's Government. These ministers are drawn from and are responsible to Parliament, the legislative body, which is traditionally considered to be "supreme" (that is, able to legislate on any matter and not bound by decisions of its predecessors). The United Kingdom is one of the few countries in the world today that does not have a codified constitution, relying instead on traditional customs and separate pieces of constitutional law[12].
The Palace of Westminster, on the banks of the River Thames, London, houses the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Since the 1920s, the two largest political parties in British politics have been the Labour Party and Conservative Party. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of Parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament [18]. The Liberal Democrats are the third largest party in the British parliament and actively seek a reform of the electoral system to address the dominance of the two-party system [19].
Though many in the United Kingdom consider themselves 'British' as well as 'English', 'Scottish' 'Welsh', or 'Irish' (and increasingly also 'Afro-Caribbean', 'Indian', or 'Pakistani'), there has long been a widespread sense of separate national identities in the nations of Scotland and Wales and amongst the Catholic and Protestant community in Northern Ireland [20][21][22]. Independence for the Republic of Ireland in 1922 provided only a partial solution to what had been termed in the 19th Century the 'Irish Question', and competing demands for a united Ireland or continued union with Great Britain have brought civil strife and political instability up to the present day.
Parliament Buildings in Stormont, Belfast, seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly
Tendencies to devolution with the wider United Kingdom have had only little resonance in England. There is currently little appetite for a devolved English parliament, although senior Conservatives and Liberal Democrats have voiced concerns in regard to the West Lothian Question [23][24], which is raised where certain policies for England are set by MPs from all four constituent nations whereas similar policies for Scotland or Wales might be decided in the devolved assemblies by legislators from those countries alone. Alternative proposals for English regional government have stalled, following a poorly received referendum on devolved government for the North East of England, which had hitherto been considered the region most in favour of the idea. England is therefore governed according to the balance of parties across the whole of the United Kingdom.
The resurgence in Celtic language and identity, as well as 'regional' politics and development, has contributed to forces pulling against the unity of the state [25]. However, there is at present little sign of any imminent 'crisis' (at the last General Election, both the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru saw their percentage of the overall vote drop, though the SNP did gain two more seats and are the second largest party in the Scottish Parliament as well as official opposition). Nevertheless many in Scotland would like independence [26] although most English do not[27]. In Northern Ireland, there has been a significant decrease in violence over the last twenty years, though the situation remains tense, with the more hardline parties, such as Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionists, now holding the most parliamentary seats (see Demographics and politics of Northern Ireland).
Parliament House, Edinburgh is the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland.
The United Kingdom has three distinct systems of law. English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law, which applies in Northern Ireland, are based on common-law principles. Scots law, which applies in Scotland, is a hybrid system based on both common-law and civil-law principles. The Act of Union 1707 guarantees the continued existence of a separate law system for Scotland.
The Appelate Committee of the House of Lords (usually just referred to, confusingly, as "The House of Lords") is the highest court in the land for all criminal and civil cases in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and for all civil cases in Scots law. Recent constitutional changes will see the powers of the House of Lords transfer to a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. [28]
In England and Wales, the court system is headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). In Scotland, the chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases, while the sheriff court is the Scottish equivalent of the county court.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the UK overseas territories, and the British crown dependencies.
Trafalgar Square in London is one of the most famous public places in the United Kingdom.
At the April 2001 UK Census, the United Kingdom's population was 58,789,194, the third-largest in the European Union (behind Germany and France) and the twenty-first largest in the world. This had been estimated up to 59,834,300 [34] by the Office for National Statistics in 2004. Two years later it had increased to 60.2 million, largely from net immigration, but also because of a rising birth rate and increasing life expectancy. [35]
Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. About a quarter of the population lives in England's prosperous south-east [36] and is predominantly urban and suburban, with an estimated 7,517,700 in the capital of London. [37] The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) [38] is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900 (except in Scotland where it was introduced in 1696, see Education in Scotland). Education is mandatory from ages five to sixteen.
Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in the UK.
Unlike many countries today, which are officially secular, the UK is an officially Christian country. This is reflected throughout British public life, for instance, there are established state churches in England and Scotland and the Head of State is a Christian monarch crowned by an Arch-bishop in a church. British society is said to belong to the Judaeo-Christian tradition.
A majority of Britons, 72%, identify themselves as Christian.[48] Christianity was first introduced to Britain by the Romans.
Despite this, a relatively small proportion of the population attends public worship on a weekly basis. The United Kingdom has one of the lowest levels of public worship attendance in the world, with less than 8% of people attending any form of worship on a regular basis (of whom the majority are of middle-aged and older generations). [49]
Each home nation has its own church hierarchy.
The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, and acts as the 'mother' and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion. Originally established as part of the Roman Catholic Church in 597AD by Augustine of Canterbury on behalf of Pope Gregory I, the Church split from Rome in 1534 during the reign of Henry VIII of England. The Church of England is a state church, and some of her bishops sit in the House of Lords. The British monarch is required to be a member of the Church of England under the Act of Settlement 1701 and is the Supreme Governor. Roman Catholics are expressly forbidden from becoming monarch, stemming from conflict over the crown and whether Britain was in the past, Catholic or Protestant. The Church of England is based at Canterbury Cathedral and the Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior clergyman.
Westminster Abbey is used for the Coronation of all British Monarchs, who are also made the head of the Church of England.
Presbyterian church and is not subject to state control. The British monarch is an ordinary member, although the monarch is required to swear an oath to "defend the security" of the Church at their coronation. Splits in the Church since the reformation have led to the creation of various other Presbyterian churches in Scotland including the Free Church of Scotland and the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland.
In Wales, the Church in Wales was disestablished in the 1920s, although it remains in the Anglican community. The Church of Ireland was disestablished in the 19th century.
The Roman Catholic Church is the second largest denomination of Christianity in the UK. After the Reformation, strict laws were passed against Catholics; these were removed by the Catholic Emancipation laws in the 1850s. The Catholic hierarchy is separate in England and Wales, Scotland.
In Northern Ireland the Catholic Church in Ireland is the largest single denomination. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is the largest Protestant denomination and is in terms of theology and history very closely linked to the Church of Scotland. Other large Christian groups are the Methodists and the Baptists.
Hindu temple at Neasden is the largest temple of Hinduism in Europe.
The City of London, the largest financial centre in Europe
The British economy is the home of the Anglo-Saxon model, focusing on the principles of liberalisation, the free market, 'common law' relating to property, and low taxation and regulation. Based on market exchange rates, the United Kingdom is the fifth largest economy in the world; [53], the second largest in Europe after Germany, and the sixth-largest overall by purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates.
The British were the first in the world to enter the Industrial Revolution, and, like most industrialising countries at the time, initially concentrated on heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining, steel production, and textiles. The empire created an overseas market for British products, allowing the United Kingdom to dominate international trade in the 19th century. However, as other nations industrialised and surplus labour from agriculture began to dry up, the United Kingdom started to lose its economic advantage. As a result, heavy industry declined throughout the 20th century. The British service sector, however, has grown substantially, and now makes up about 73% of GDP. [54]
The service sector of the United Kingdom is dominated by financial services, especially in banking and insurance. London is one of the world's largest financial centres with the London Stock Exchange, the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange, and the Lloyd's of London insurance market all based in the city. It also has the largest concentration of foreign bank branches in the world. In the past decade, a rival financial centre in London has grown in the Docklands area, with HSBC, Citigroup, and Barclays Bank all relocating their head offices there. The Scottish capital, Edinburgh also has one of the large financial centres of Europe [55].
Tourism is very important to the British economy. With over 27 million tourists a year, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world.
Bank of England £20 note
The United Kingdom's agriculture sector is small by European standards, accounting for only 0.9% of GDP. [citation needed] The UK though has large coal, natural gas, and oil reserves. Primary energy production accounts for about 10% of Gross domestic product (GDP), [citation needed] one of the highest shares of any industrial state.
The currency of the UK is pound sterling, represented by the symbol £. The Bank of England is the central bank and is responsible for issuing currency, although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover the issue. The UK chose not to join the Euro on the currency's launch, although the government has pledged to hold a public referendum for deciding membership if "five economic tests" are met. [11] Currently UK public opinion is against the notion. [58]
Government involvement over the economy is exercised by the Chancellor of the Exchequer (currently Gordon Brown) who heads HM Treasury, but the Prime Minister (currently Tony Blair), is First Lord of the Treasury (the Chancellor of the Exchequer being the Second Lord of the Treasury). However since 1997, the Bank of England, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has control of interest rates and other monetary policy. The UK government has greatly increased public sector spending (i.e.: government spending of taxes) since 1995, and annual spending on investment in infrastructure has grown from £5.6bn in 1997 to £29bn in 2006.
Manchester Town Hall. Many towns and cities in the UK have impressive town or city hall buildings as administrative headquarters for local government
The Royal Navy operates four nuclear submarines armed with the Trident II nuclear missile.
The armed forces of the United Kingdom are known as the British Armed Forces or Her Majesty's Armed Forces, but officially Armed Forces of the Crown. Their Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch, HM The Queen and they are managed by the Ministry of Defence. The armed forces are controlled by the Defence Council currently headed by Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup.
The United Kingdom fields one of the most powerful and comprehensive armed forces in the world. Its global power projection capabilities are deemed second only to the United States military, and its navy is the world's second strongest. [59] Further, the Royal Navy's total naval tonnage is second only to the United States military and the third largest share of tactical combat aircraft to the US and France.[60] The UK has the second highest military expenditure in the world, after the United States.[61]
The United Kingdom possesses a comprehensive nuclear arsenal, one of the small number of countries to do so, utilising the submarine-based Trident II ballistic missile system with nuclear warheads. These Vanguard class submarines were designed and built by VSEL (now BAE Systems Submarines) at Barrow-in-Furness.
The strength of British armed forces and their role overseas, has led some to call the era a British Moment, where the nation has a unique and growing role in world affairs.
Oxford University in Oxfordshire, England.
The United Kingdom contains some of the world's leading, and oldest, seats of higher education [64], such as the ancient multifaculty universities at Oxford and Cambridge. It has produced many great scholars, scientists and engineers including Sir Isaac Newton, Bertrand Russell, Adam Smith, James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, Sir Humphry Davy, Joseph John Thomson, Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin, Alexander Fleming, Francis Crick, Sir Joseph William Bazalgette and Isambard Kingdom Brunel; the nation is credited with numerous scientific discoveries including hydrogen, gravity, the electron, structure of DNA, antibiotics and inventions including the chronometer, steam locomotive and the modern railway, vaccination, television, electric lighting, the electric motor, the screw propeller, the internal combustion engine, the jet engine, the modern bicycle, the electronic computer, along with the later development of the World Wide Web.
In 2006, it was reported that the UK was the most productive source of research after the United States; with the UK producing 9% of the world's scientific research papers with a 12% share of citations.[65]
The Chandos portrait, believed to depict William Shakespeare, famed playwright
The countries that make up the United Kingdom have provided some of the world's most notable and popular authors, poets and literary figures. The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is arguably the most famous writer in the English language.
Many world-famous writers and poets lived and wrote in the United Kingdom. England is particularly well represented in the history of the novel. Early English writers who could be described as novelists include Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas Malory and Geoffrey of Monmouth. These romantic writers were followed by a wave of more realistic writers in later centuries, including Jane Austen (often credited with inventing the modern novel), Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Thomas Hardy, Joseph Conrad, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and H. G. Wells. In the 20th century, Virginia Woolf, D. H. Lawrence, J. R. R. Tolkien, George Orwell, Graham Greene and Ian McEwan all excelled. Tolkien became one of the most popular writers of the modern world, returning to a Romantic view of fiction. Childrens' author J. K. Rowling has had huge recent success.
The British Airways London Eye.
Notable composers from the United Kingdom have included Henry Purcell, Sir Edward Elgar, Sir Arthur Sullivan (most famous for working with librettist Sir W. S. Gilbert), Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Lord Benjamin Britten who pioneered British opera.
The UK was, with the US, one of the two main contributors in the development of rock and roll, and the UK has provided some of the world's most famous rock bands including The Beatles, Queen, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple, The Who, Pink Floyd, Black Sabbath,Iron Maiden and The Rolling Stones. The UK was at the forefront of punk rock with bands like The Sex Pistols and The Clash, music in the 1970s as well as the creation of heavy metal along with being the birthplace of the Goth youth culture. The late-1970s and 1980s saw the rise of Post-Punk and New Wave. The so-called 'Second British Invasion' into the US popular music scene took place from 1982 to 1984 when UK bands flooded the US Billboard charts. In the mid to late-1990s, the Britpop phenomenon saw bands such as Radiohead, Oasis and Blur attain considerable national and international success. The 1990s also saw the rise of major Welsh bands such as The Stereophonics and Manic Street Preachers. The UK is also at the forefront of electronica, with British artists such as The Prodigy and The Chemical Brothers helping this mainly underground genre to cross over into the mainstream (having originated in the early-90's with techno bands such as Orbital). Also British pop producers Stock Aitken Waterman - dominated the charts in the late-80's and early-90's with their instantly recognisable brand of pop from acts including today's pop superstar, Kylie Minogue. The 1990s charts were also dominated by the boy band phenomenon, with groups such as Take That thriving amongst countless others. Girl groups like the Spice Girls and Sugababes also found considerable success. UK Garage developed out of the urban music scene towards the end of the decade, through popular acts such as the Artful Dodger. The popularity of 'soft rock' bands such as Coldplay has increased, whilst indie music has grown in profile, with Arctic Monkeys enjoying chart success and Pete Doherty gaining newspaper headlines. 'Reality-TV' have also produced a new generation of popstars.
William Turner's "Flint Castle".
The UK has a virtually unrivalled number of media outlets, and the prominence of the English language gives it a widespread international dimension.
The BBC is the UK's publicly-funded radio and television broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest broadcaster in the world. Funded by the compulsory television licence, the BBC operates several television networks and radio stations both in the UK and abroad. The BBC's international television news service, BBC World, is broadcast throughout the world and the BBC World Service radio network is broadcast in 33 languages globally. The major television networks in the UK are BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4, Five and BSkyB. The vast majority of digital cable services are provided by NTL:Telewest (created by the merger of NTL and Telewest in March 2006), and free-to-air digital terrestrial television by Freeview.
Radio in the UK is dominated by BBC Radio, which operates 10 national networks and over 40 local radio stations. The most popular radio station, by number of listeners, is BBC Radio 2, closely followed by BBC Radio 1. There are also hundreds of commercial radio stations which are largely local-based offering up a variety of music or talk formats.
A number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football (football, or soccer), rugby football (rugby), golf, cricket, tennis and boxing.
The most popular sport in the UK is association football (known as soccer in North America and Australia), commonly referred to as just "football". The UK does not compete as a nation in any major football tournament. Instead, the home nations compete individually as England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. It is because of this unique four-team arrangement that the UK currently does not compete in football events at the Olympic Games. However, a united team will probably take part in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, which are to be hosted in London. The English and Northern Irish football associations have confirmed participation in this team while the Scottish FA and the Welsh FA have declined to participate. It is in this way that rugby football differs internationally to association football, as the England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland (including Northern Ireland) teams do come together to form the British and Irish Lions, though they do all compete separately internationally for the most part.
Tennis originated in the UK. The Wimbledon Championships Grand Slam tournament is held in London every July.
Wembley Stadium when completed will be the largest football stadium in the United Kingdom.
The early reference to the separate national identities in the UK is perhaps best illustrated by the game of cricket. Cricket was invented in England and is one of the oldest still played sports in the world. There are league championships but most just support the English national team. There is no UK team, there is only an England side. Although some Welsh and Scottish players have played for England, it is in England where cricket retains its major fan base in the UK. English cricket grounds include Lords, The Brit Oval, Headingly, Old Trafford, Edgbaston and Trent Bridge.
By far the UK's most successful sport, if judged by the number of wins in the international arena, is rowing which holds a strong presence amongst other rowing nations such as Australia, Canada and Germany. It is widely considered that the UK's most successful sportsperson is Steven Redgrave who won five gold and one bronze medals at five consecutive Olympic Games as well as numerous wins at the World Rowing Championships and Henley Royal Regatta.
The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews regarded as the worldwide "Home of Golf".
Golf is one of the most popular participation sports played in the UK, and St Andrews in Scotland is the sport's home course. Cricket is also popular; although the popularity of the game is dramatically greater in England than in other parts of the UK, all four constituent nations as of 2006 compete at the One-Day International level – Scotland independently, Wales as part of the English team, and Northern Ireland as part of All-Ireland.
The Statue of Britannia in Plymouth.
• The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag (commonly known as the "Union Jack", though this is technically only correct when at sea). Created from the superimposition of the flags of England (St George's Cross) and Scotland (Saint Andrew's Cross); the Saint Patrick's cross, representing Ireland, was added to this in 1801.
• The national anthem of the UK is "God Save the Queen".[68]
• Britannia is a personification of the UK, originating from the Roman occupation of southern and central Great Britain[69]. Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding the back of a lion. In modern usage, Britannia is often associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song Rule Britannia.
Britannia, featured on Royal Mint gold bullion coin
The ancient British landscape, and especially some of its distinctive fauna such as the oak tree and the rose, have long been a widely-used proxy for the visual representation of British identity.
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Diego Armando Maradona (ur. 30 października 1960) (pseudonim Pelusa – puszek) jest byłym piłkarzem argentyńskim, przez wielu fachowców uważanym za jednego z najlepszych piłkarzy wszechczasów.
Urodził się w miejscowości Villa Fiorito położonej niedaleko Buenos Aires. W wieku 10 lat zapisał się do młodzieżowej drużyny piłkarskiej Los Cebollitas. W profesjonalnym futbolu zadebiutował w 1976, dołączając do Argentinos Juniors (1976-81). Lata 1981-82 spędził w Boca Juniors, gdzie rozegrał 40 meczów i strzelił 28 goli. W 1982 zdecydował się na opuszczenie Argentyny i hiszpańskiego klubu FC Barcelona, z którym wygrał Copa del Rey. Największe sukcesy odnosił razem z klubem SSC Napoli. Grając tam w latach 1984-1991 zdobył dwukrotnie mistrzostwo Włoch (1986/87 i 1989/90), Coppa Italia (1987), Puchar UEFA (1989) oraz Superpuchar Włoch.
W reprezentacji Argentyny grał od 1977. W 1982 znalazł się w kadrze na Mistrzostwa Świata. Jego drużyna przeszła pierwszą rundę turnieju, przegrywając z Belgią oraz pokonując reprezentację Węgier i Salwadoru. W drugiej rundzie Argentyna odpadła, a Maradona nie zdołał zaprezentować swoich umiejętności. Udało mu się natomiast pokazać światu swój temperament, ponieważ w ostatnim meczu otrzymał czerwoną kartkę.
Maradona poprowadził drużynę narodową do zwycięstwa w Mistrzostwach Świata w 1986 roku w Meksyku. W meczu finałowym Argentyna pokonała reprezentację RFN 3:2. Najsłynniejszym wydarzeniem tamtych mistrzostw był mecz ćwierćfinałowy z Anglią. Maradona zdobył w nim dwie bramki. Jedną z nich strzelił ręką, natomiast druga, strzelona po rajdzie przez niemal całe boisko i minięciu sześciu angielskich zawodników, uznawana jest do dziś przez wielu za jedną z najpiękniejszych w historii. Pierwsza bramka wywołała kontrowersje i protesty strony angielskiej. Maradona odrzucał oskarżenia o nieprzepisowe zagranie, choć na zdjęciach widać, jak Argentyńczyk przerzuca piłkę ręką nad angielskim bramkarzem Peterem Shiltonem. Po meczu tłumaczył, że pomogła mu „Ręka Boga”. Dopiero po 19 latach, w jednym z udzielanych wywiadów przyznał się, że gola zdobył niezgodnie z przepisami.
Podczas Mistrzostw Świata w 1990 roku we Włoszech Maradona był kapitanem swojej reprezentacji. Z jego pomocą Argentyna dotarła do finału, pokonując po drodze m.in. Brazylię, Jugosławię i Włochy. Finałowy mecz z RFN zakończył się porażką 0:1, po golu zdobytym z dyskusyjnego rzutu karnego w ostatnich minutach spotkania.
Porażka z Niemcami była początkiem końca kariery. W marcu 1991 podczas testu antydopingowego wykryto w organizmie zawodnika niedozwolone środki. Efektem tego była 15-miesięczna dyskwalifikacja. Maradona nigdy nie wrócił już do klubu z Neapolu. Przez rok grał w Sevilli, skąd wrócił do Argentyny do drużyny Newell’s Old Boys.
Mistrzostwa Świata w Stanach Zjednoczonych (1994) były praktycznie końcem kariery Maradony. Został z nich wykluczony po ponownie pozytywnym teście antydopingowym.
W kolejnych latach próbował swoich sił jako trener, wrócił nawet do swojego dawnego klubu Boca Juniors. 30 października 1997 oficjalnie zakończył swoją karierę.
W 2004 roku, po zawale serca, większość czasu spędził w klinice medycznej na Kubie.
W 2000 roku wydał swą autobiografię zatytuowaną "El Diego" napisaną we współpracy z Danielem Arcuccim i Ernesto Cherquisem Bialo. Opisuje w niej swoje dzieciństwo, karierę piłkarską, a także zwarł w niej listę stu, jego zdaniem, najlepszych piłkarzy świata. Książka ukazała się w Polsce w 2005 roku nakładem wydawnictwa "Zysk i s-ka"; przełożył ją Wojciech Charchilis.
W 2005 roku wziął udział w drugiej edycji włoskiego Tańca z gwiazdami.
Zobacz galerię na Wikimedia Commons:
Diego Maradona
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